Early Conquests: 7 Pivotal Battles that Shaped Early Rome

2 – Battle of Lake Regillus (499/496? BC)

This battle marked Tarquin’s final attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Although his age is unknown, Tarquin was unquestionably an old man at this stage since he became king in 535 BC. With the overthrow of the monarchy, the cities of the Latin League were able to escape Roman control; although it is doubtful that they were ever under Rome’s thumb. Livy is the main source of the Battle of Lake Regillus and admits that he is unsure of the date; it could have taken place anywhere from 499 BC to 496 BC.

Details are unclear, but it seems as if Aulus Postumius Albus was named dictator to deal with the threat of invasion by Latium. Livy claims that the Volsci tribe wanted to send troops to help Latium but Albus forced a battle so quickly that they didn’t arrive in time. Tarquin led his army along with his oldest son Titus and Octavius Mamillus, the dictator of Tusculum. Livy suggested that Tarquin’s presence caused the Romans to fight more fiercely than in any battle up to that point.

Tarquin was injured early in the battle as he tried to attack Albus, but initially, his army took control of the battle. The Romans lost one of its most important leaders, Marcus Valerius Volusus when he was killed with a spear when attacking Titus. However, Albus used troops from his bodyguard to turn the tide. One of the Roman generals killed Mamillus but was killed soon afterward. The battle remained in the balance until Albus ordered his horsemen to dismount and fight on foot. They overwhelmed the Latins, captured their camp and forced them to flee.

Albus returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph. Meanwhile, Tarquin and his son realized that they had no hope of ever regaining their crown. The former king went to the court of King Aristodemus and died in Cumae in 495 BC. Rome retained its independence and remained a republic for over 450 years.

3 – Battle of Veii (396 BC)

This was the decisive battle in the Third Veientine War (405-396 BC) between Rome and its closest rival, the Etruscan city of Veii. It was a crucial conflict because, after a decade-long war, Rome conquered Veii and became Central Italy’s most powerful state. Rome also had wars with the Volscians and Aequi at that time but had no issue with starting another fight with its long-time enemy. The Roman People voted for war with Veii in 405 BC. When the Romans captured the Volscian town of Anxur, the Senate announced that soldiers would receive money from the public purse for the very first time. Before that point, soldiers had to pay for the privilege of serving in the army.

The city of Veii was apparently under siege since 405 BC although Livy doesn’t write about a blockade or anything of that nature. After almost a decade of fighting, the war finally came to an end with the Battle of Veii in 396 BC. Two of the consular tribunes for the year, Genucius, and Titinius suffered a heavy defeat against the Capenates and Faliscans. Genucius was killed, and Titinius barely escaped. When the Roman camp heard rumors of an enemy army approaching, a significant number of soldiers wanted to return home. The army’s leaders apparently managed to convince them to stay with a great deal of difficulty. One wonders how history would have changed had they fled.

Furius Camillus was appointed as dictator (at that time it meant someone who was given power in the event of an emergency). He raised a large army with Latin, and Hernican soldiers included. Camillus’ army defeated the Faliscans and Capenates and marched to Veii. According to Livy, Camillus ordered the creation of a tunnel to dig beneath the walls of the enemy. The Romans apparently managed to dig the tunnel and emerged in the Temple of Juno.

The defenders of the city were shocked at the ingenuity of the enemy, and while they tried to fight them off, the Romans were too strong. Camillus supposedly spared the lives of unarmed citizens. He asked the Senate for advice on sharing the loot; it decreed that the soldiers should receive the money. Victory over Veii increased Roman strength and doubled the amount of land it held. The survivors of Veii were sold into slavery although the rural population was probably spared this fate. Rome did not get to enjoy the victory for very long because disaster was on the horizon.

4 – Battle of the Allia (390 BC)

Although it occurred relatively early in Rome’s history, the loss at the Allia remained as one of the most embarrassing losses ever suffered by the proud republic. Not only because of the defeat on the battlefield, but also what happened next. The Senones were a Gallic tribe that invaded Northern Italy in the early 4^th century BC. Livy claims that in 390 BC, the Senones were called to the city of Clusium by one of its leading citizens. He apparently wanted to gain revenge over another man who had debauched his wife. The Clusians were concerned by the appearance of the Gauls and requested help from Rome.

Initially, it appeared as if everything would die down because Rome made an agreement with the Senones. However, a quarrel broke out during the negotiations, a skirmish occurred, and one of the Senone chieftains was killed by a Roman ambassador, one of the Fabii brothers. The Gallic tribe demanded that Rome hand over the Fabii. When their request was refused, they decided to march on the city which was around 80 miles from Clusium.

As they approached the city, they were met by a Roman army near the Allia River. The Roman army numbered anywhere from 15,000-40,000 but was almost certainly outnumbered by the Senones who had anywhere from 40,000-70,000. Brennus led the Gauls and even though the Romans expanded both flanks, they still held a smaller line than the enemy. Their reserve was stationed on a hill on the right of the line. Brennus decided to attack the reserve because he thought the Romans were hiding part of their army. He believed that if he attacked the main line, his army would be surrounded.

The Romans panicked when they saw their reserves getting attacked and their left wing fled to Veii while the right wing returned to Rome but stationed themselves in the Citadel. As a result, the uncompleted walls of Rome were completely undefended, and the city was at the mercy of the Senones. Although Rome probably didn’t sustain massive losses at the Allia (though some sources say it lost two-thirds of its army), it suffered the indignity of being sacked by Brennus and his men.

The Senones marched into the city unopposed but soon turned their attention to the Citadel. After a siege, the defenders realized they were running out of supplies and were forced into a humiliating bargain. They paid the Senones 1,000 pounds of gold to leave. The Gauls were happy to accept as they had lost a lot of men due to disease. In reality, Rome recovered from the loss quickly as there is no archaeological evidence to suggest the Gauls burned the city or destroyed it in any way.

Perhaps the most significant thing about the loss at the Allia was the reaction of the Romans. Instead of accepting the defeat and moving on, they completely overhauled the military. Camillus began a series of reforms that were refined even further during the Samnite Wars later in the 4^th century BC. The stiff and rigid phalanx was replaced by a more mobile unit, and the Romans began throwing javelins at enemies before attacking with short swords in hand-to-hand combat. Also, the scutum replaced the round shield. When former enemies such as the Etruscans saw their rival humbled, they reopened old wars. In one battle, Rome had lost what had taken over 100 years to accumulate.

5 – Battle of Trifanum (340 BC)

As I wrote on the last page, Rome’s loss at Allia paved the way for new conflicts during the 4^th Century BC. One of their old enemies, Latium, rekindled hostilities after a century and a half of peace. After the conclusion of the First Latin War in 493 BC, the two sides agreed to perpetual peace, and the Latin League even provided Rome with soldiers in the intervening period.

By the 340s BC, Rome was involved in the First Samnite War. When the Samnites invaded the Sidicines, they appealed to Rome for help. Rome refused, so the Sidicines asked the Latin League. The Latins invaded Samnium, so the Samnites asked Rome for assistance in 341 BC (the First Samnite War had ended with a peace treaty) only to get a vague answer.

The Samnites said that if the Latins and Campani were subjects of Rome, they should cease their attack at Rome’s behest. According to the Romans, there was nothing in their treaty with the Latin League to prevent them from going to war with whoever they wanted. The angry Campanians turned against Rome and encouraged the Latins to get involved. It soon became obvious that the Latin League was preparing for war, so the Roman Senate asked them what they wanted. The Latins asked to be treated as equals of Rome with one of the two annual consuls to come from Latium. The Senate refused, and the Latin League declared war in 340 BC.

It was an interesting conflict because the Latins and Romans were very similar in how they fought. Rome enjoyed an early victory at the Battle of Veseris before the two enemies met at the Battle of Trifanum. There isn’t a huge amount of information surrounding the battle, but we do know that the Romans were led by Manlius Torquatus who had won at Veseris when his colleague Decius Mus apparently sacrificed himself. Livy wrote that the two armies dropped their baggage and fought as soon as they met. The result was a Roman victory so decisive that the Latins almost surrendered.

However, they fought on for another two years but suffered further defeats. The Romans conquered several Latin League villages in 339 BC and enjoyed a big win at Fenectane Plains. In 338 BC, the Romans closed the show with victories at Astura and Pedum. By now, the Romans consuls were free to march through Latium and captured every enemy city. The Latin League was disbanded, and most of its cities lost important rights such as common council, intermarriage, and free trade. Overall, the Latin War resulted in significant Roman expansion both regarding territory and citizens.

6 – Battle of Aquilonia (293 BC)

The Samnites were one of early Rome’s biggest enemies, and the two sides fought a total of three wars beginning in 343 BC. Rome managed to force peace terms at the end of the First Samnite War in 341 BC. The second conflict, also known as the Great Samnite War, lasted over 20 years (326-304 BC) but once again, Rome was successful. The Third and final, Samnite War began in 298 BC after Rome interfered when the Samnites invaded Lucania.

After an early victory for the Samnites at Camerium in 298 BC, the Romans soon took control and managed to defeat the Samnites at Tifernum in 297 BC. Over the next few years, the Romans whittled down the enemy ranks, and by 293 BC, the Samnites were desperately short of numbers. They ordered all Samnites in Aquilonia to join the fight. These men swore an oath their country; refusal to join meant immediate execution.

Details of the Battle of Aquilonia are scant although the Samnites apparently held their line for a considerable period. Eventually the Romans, led by Papirius, supposedly frightened the enemy by creating a large cloud of dust with his cavalry. The Romans believed they were about to be joined by comrades led by Carvilius even though he was besieging another city at the time. Nonetheless, the confident Romans charged down the Samnite center and routed them.

The Samnites fled the city of Aquilonia, and while the war continued for another three years, the losses suffered by the Samnites effectively crippled them. With little resistance facing them, the Roman consuls decided to storm the enemy’s towns. Several of Livy’s books chronicling the end of the war have sadly been lost. The remaining information suggests that Roman consuls Dentatus and Rufinus ended the Samnite resistance once and for all. The confidence gained by Rome paved the way for it to become the Mediterranean’s most powerful state.

7 – Battle of Populonia (282 BC)

The Etruscans were probably the most enduring enemy faced by Rome in its early years. Details of these conflicts are limited, and most information is gleaned from a handful of ancient texts. The two states probably began hostilities as early as the 8^th century BC when the Fidenates (an Etruscan people) tried to suppress Rome which was ruled by Romulus, its first king.

The final conflict occurred from 285-282 BC as the Romans fought the Etruscans and the Gauls. The Romans suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of the Gauls at the Battle of Arretium in 284 BC but recovered to beat the Etruscans at the Battle of Lake Vadimo in 283 BC. The Roman army, led by Publius Cornelius Dolabella, overcame an enemy army consisting of Senones and Etruscans. At this point, things get confusing as there are varying accounts of what happened by Appian and Polybius. Appian wrote that Dolabella ravaged the Senones with fire and sword.

Lake Vadimo was possibly the most decisive battle of the conflict, but it was only at Populonia that the Romans finally crushed Etruscan resistance permanently. There are practically no details of the battle other than the fact that Rome won a decisive victory and forced an unconditional surrender.

Ancient sources suggest that the war possibly dragged on for a couple of years until Tiberius Coruncanius conquered the important Etruscan city of Vulci in 280 BC. Archaeologists discovered magnificent tombs at Vulci in the 19th century, but sadly, the tombs have since been forgotten and lost. The Etruscans assimilated into the Roman culture as its conqueror began expanding its territory in earnest. The Etruscan language survived for another three centuries. After turning away a fierce invasion by King Pyrrhus of Epirus in the Pyrrhic War of 280-275 BC, Rome turned its attention to further conquest and met a formidable enemy in Carthage.